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الموضوع: Semantics متجدد

  1. #1

    الصورة الرمزية عشق اليمن
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    Question Semantics متجدد

    نقره لتكبير أو تصغير الصورة ونقرتين لعرض الصورة في صفحة مستقلة بحجمها الطبيعي

    نقره لتكبير أو تصغير الصورة ونقرتين لعرض الصورة في صفحة مستقلة بحجمها الطبيعي
    نقره لتكبير أو تصغير الصورة ونقرتين لعرض الصورة في صفحة مستقلة بحجمها الطبيعي
    بس وش لي في حلاتك دام فيهـا ترخصيـن
    حشمة البنـت وحياهـا والكرامـة يلفتـون

  2. #2

    الصورة الرمزية عشق اليمن
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    رد: Semantics متجدد

    Some Basic Concepts In Semantics
    Sentence
    A sentence is an ideal string of words formed in accordance with the grammatical rules of a language
    it's highest of grammar sentence is Written grammar meaningful stretch of language
    1-sentence is higher than clause
    2-clause is higher than phrase
    3-phrase is higher than the word
    Independent: it's complete is meaning the sentence
    S+ v+ C في الجملة يجب إكمالها لتكون نحويا
    e.g.: She gets up early
    she always get up early
    utterance
    *An Utterance : is any stretch of language spoken by a person at a certain and place on a certain occasion.
    الكلام: هو امتداد للغه التي يتحدث بها الشخص في مكان معين و ومناسبة معينه
    ( spoken A meaningless sequence of sounds like the
    following cannot be considered an utterance
    proposition
    *proposition: A proposition is semantic content of a simple declarative sentence
    The proposition is essentially a semantic concept
    Differences between a sentence and an utterance
    *An utterance; should not be full sentence and it's could be full ( fine) or (I'm fine)
    utterance عندما تكون الاجابه وحده على كل الاسئله تكون قد تكون الجمله تامه وقد لا تكتمل والمهم انه تكون لها معنى واضح
    *A Sentence: should be full sentence (I'm fine)يجب أن تكون الجملة تامة
    *An utterance : should not be part of sentence it could be of number sentences in a sequence. Hi, How are you, are you fineقد تكون جزى من الجمل او تكون عدت جمل في نفس السياق
    *An Utterance is necessarily a physical event, in utterance have a pause =silent
    يجب أن تستخدم أعضاء النطق لأنها شفوية, ويوجد فيها سكوت بين الكلام
    *It need not begins with capital letter and an end with punctuation mark and question
    لا نحتاج لكتابه بالحروف الكبيره او علامات الترقيم وعلامه الاستفهام لانها تظهر بصوت الشخص المتكلم نوع الجمله
    *A sentence: generally begins with a capital letter and ends with punctuation mark
    يجب ان تبدى الجمله بحرف كبير وتنتهي بعلامات الترقيم
    *An utterance: when we repeat the same sentence many time like Hi….Hi…Hi we will have 3 utterance but it should be there silent between every word
    utterances عند دما يتكرر نطق الجمله اكثر من مره يصبح لدينا اكثر من
    Hello , Hello , Hello تعتبر ثلاث جمل وأيضا ثلاث ألفاظ
    *Anutterance is the spoken form of a stretch if language it can be slow or fast , faint or loud
    . بطيي او سريع منخفض مرتفع utterance يمكن ان يكون في
    *Sentence: cannot be slow or fast, faint and loud لا يمكن ان تكون الجملة بطيئة او سريع هاو منخفض او مرتفعه ا
    *Accent and voice quality can be feature of utterance only. ( utterance تغيير الصوت او لهجة من سمات (
    *A Sentence: we can't change the meaning by the voice لا نستطيع تغيير معنى الجمله بواسطة الصوت
    *An utterance : need not be in the form of a complete sentence having a clearly it's nay well be in the form of only a word or phrase or a clause operating as a full sentence
    لا تحتاج أن نكمل الجملة ويجب أن تكون واضحة ولها معنى وقد تكون كلمه او عباره او كلمات وتظهر جمله لانها لها معنى واضح
    Will you be here tomorrow?
    Yes
    Difference between a sentence and a proposition
    *when we change the order of words it will become another sentence likeعند تعيير ترتيب الجمله تصبح لدينا جمله أخرى
    *A proposition: when we change the order of words it doesn't change the meaning so we have one proposition
    عند تغيير ترتيب الجملة لا يصبح لدينا معنى مختلف
    He gave the books away
    He gave away the books
    In this example we have two sentence but we have one proposition في هذا الامثله لدينا جملتين ولدينا معنى واحد فقط
    *when we change the structure of sentence we will get another sentenceعندما نغير بنيه الجمله سوف يصبح لدينا جمله اخرى
    *when we change the structure of sentence we will have the sameprepositionعندما نغير بنيه الجمله لا يتغير المعنى
    John envies Jim جون يحسد جيم
    John is envies of Jim جون هو يغار من جيم
    *A sentence is a grammatical entity تتكون الجمله من بنيه نحويه
    *A proposition: is a semantic notion المعنى الدلالي
    John Keats wrote this poem
    This poem was written by John Keats
    Have separate sentences but they are not two different propositionلدينا بنيتين مختلفتي لذلك لدينا جملتين والمعنى واحد
    &-change the voice of sentence makes another sentence
    &change the voice of a simple declarative sentence does not make it another sentence
    نقره لتكبير أو تصغير الصورة ونقرتين لعرض الصورة في صفحة مستقلة بحجمها الطبيعي
    بس وش لي في حلاتك دام فيهـا ترخصيـن
    حشمة البنـت وحياهـا والكرامـة يلفتـون

  3. #3

    الصورة الرمزية عشق اليمن
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    رد: Semantics متجدد

    Analytic sentence
    *An analytic sentence is a sentence the proposition content of which is necessarily true يجب ان تكون صادقه ولا تحتمل الكذب
    Dogs are animals
    Synthetic Sentence
    *A synthetic sentence is a sentence the propositional content of which may be either true or flues
    جمله تحتمل الصواب والخطى
    His wife is always in a bad mood
    Contradiction
    *A contradiction is a sentence the propositional content of which is necessarily false جمله دائما غير صائبة
    Cats are human beings
    Entailment
    *Entailment is a property of proposition. If the truth of proposition B follows necessarily from the truth of proposition A
    We say that proposition A entails proposition B
    الاستتباع:اذا كانت الحقيقة في الجملة الثانية يستوجب اتبع الحقيقة في الجملة الأولى ونقول الجملة الأولى تستوجب الجملة الثانية
    A-Mary killed Barbara
    B-Barbara died
    الجملة الأولى تستوجب وجود المعنى للجملة الثانية ولكن الجملة الثانية لا تستوجب وجود الجملة الأولى
    Proportion A entails proposition B
    A-Mary killed Barbara
    B- Barbara died
    الجملة الثانية لاستوجب وجود الجملة الأولى ولكن الجملة الأولى تستوجب وجود الجملة الثانية
    Proposition A entails proposition B
    Entailment divided to two types
    First one is unilateral: (الجملة الأولى تستوجب الجملة الثانية والعكس غير صحيح)
    A-He is from India
    B- He is from Asia
    الجملة الأولى تستوجب المعنى للجملة الثانية والجملة الثانية لاستوجب المعنى للجملة الأولى
    Second: bilateral(استيجاب الجمليتين لبعضهما )
    A-Mona resembles Barbara
    B_ Barbara resembles Mona
    كل جمله تستوجب المعنى في الجملة الثانية
    وفي بعض الأحيان قد تكون أعاده صياغ
    This place is different from that place
    That place is different from this place
    Paraphrase
    A sentence which expresses the same proposition as another sentence is known as the paraphrase of that sentence اعاده الصياغ
    A_ John sold that car to Mary
    B-Mary bought that car from John
    In these sentence A is the paraphrase of B just as B is the paraphrase of A
    Sense and reference
    Reference: used in its technical sense in semantics tells us about the relationship between languages and the outside word الكلمات التى لها معنى او جود خارج الغه
    Like
    Lions: refers to all those large, strong, flash-eating animals
    Taj Mahan: refers to building at Agra in Indian
    Sense: relationship inside the language. Which do not refer to anything in the world
    Like a person and animals (outside language ) like and , or , if ……… etc
    These words have a sense but no reference
    Sense relationship inside a language itself الكلمات التي ليس لها وجود او معنى خارج الغه
    Like
    (Morning star and evening star ) they mean the same thing (plant venous) so we say they have no difference in outside a language (semantic) but in semantic have different because we say morning Star in Morning and evening star in evening
    Denotation Connotation
    Denotation: primary meaning (the basic meaning of word المعنى الأساسي للكلمة
    Denotation: of a word is the object or the objects that it refers to in the world outside language الكلمات التي لها كيان خارج ألغه
    Meaning of word which refer to dictionary and does not change by time (stable , unchanged)معنى ألكلمه الذي لا يتغير
    Like
    Woman: (n) an adult female human
    Pigeon: a large bird
    Connotation: incident meaning المعنى الذي يتغير
    Connotation of word change with the passage of time and change from one culture to another (unstable , changeable)
    معنى ألكلمه يتغير عبر الزمن ومن ثقافة إلى أخرى
    Woman
    Beauty sensitive frail crying
    Pigeon
    Freedom pace
    All these deepens of opinion of people ( give) جميعها تعتمد على اختلافات أراء الناس
    نقره لتكبير أو تصغير الصورة ونقرتين لعرض الصورة في صفحة مستقلة بحجمها الطبيعي
    بس وش لي في حلاتك دام فيهـا ترخصيـن
    حشمة البنـت وحياهـا والكرامـة يلفتـون

  4. #4

    الصورة الرمزية عشق اليمن
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    Oct 2011
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    رد: Semantics متجدد

    Analytic sentence
    *An analytic sentenceis a sentence the proposition content of which is necessarily true يجب ان تكون صادقه ولا تحتمل الكذب
    Dogs are animals
    Synthetic Sentence
    *A synthetic sentence is a sentence the propositional content of which may be either true or flues
    جمله تحتمل الصواب والخطى
    His wife is always in a bad mood
    Contradiction
    *A contradiction is a sentence the propositional content of which is necessarily false جمله دائما غير صائبة
    Cats are human beings
    Entailment
    *Entailment is a property of proposition. If the truth of proposition B follows necessarily from the truth of proposition
    We say that proposition A entails proposition B
    الاستتباع:اذا كانت الحقيقة في الجملة الثانية يستوجب اتبع الحقيقة في الجملة الأولى ونقول الجملة الأولى تستوجب الجملة الثانية
    A-Mary killed Barbara
    B-Barbara died
    الجملة الأولى تستوجب وجود المعنى للجملة الثانية ولكن الجملة الثانية لا تستوجب وجود الجملة الأولى
    Proportion A entails proposition B
    A-Mary killed Barbara
    B- Barbara died
    الجملة الثانية لا تستوجب وجود الجملة الأولى ولكن الجملة الأولى تستوجب وجود الجملة الثانية
    Proposition A entails proposition B


    Entailment divided to two types
    First one is unilateral: (الجملة الأولى تستوجب الجملة الثانية والعكس غير صحيح)
    A-He is from India
    B- He is from Asia
    الجملة الأولى تستوجب المعنى للجملة الثانية والجملة الثانية لا تستوجب المعنى للجملة الأولى
    * Second: bilateral(استجاب الجمليتين لبعضهما )
    A-Mona resembles Barbara
    B_ Barbara resembles Mona
    كل جمله تستوجب المعنى في الجملة الثانية
    وفي بعض الأحيان قد تكون أعاده صياغ
    This place is different from that place
    That place is different from this place
    Paraphrase
    A sentence which expresses the same proposition as another sentence is known as the paraphrase of that sentence اعاده الصياغ
    A_ John sold that car to Mary
    B-Mary bought that car from John
    In these sentence A is the paraphrase of B just as B is the paraphrase of A
    Sense and reference
    *Reference: used in its technical sense in semantics tells us about the relationship between languages and the outside word الكلمات التى لها معنى او جود خارج الغه
    Like
    Lions: refers to all those large, strong, flash-eating animals
    Taj Mahan: refers to building at Agra in Indian
    *Sense: relationship inside the language. Which do not refer to anything in the world
    Like a person and animals (outside language ) like and , or , if ……… etc
    These words have a sense but no reference
    Sense relationship inside a language itself الكلمات التي ليس لها وجود او معنى خارج الغه
    Like
    (Morning star and evening star ) they mean the same thing (plant venous) so we say they have no difference in outside a language (semantic) but in semantic have different because we say morning Star in Morning and evening star in evening
    Denotation Connotation
    *Denotation: primary meaning (the basic meaning of word المعنى الأساسي للكلمة
    *Denotation: of a word is the object or the objects that it refers to in the world outside language الكلمات التي لها كيان خارج ألغه
    Meaning of word which refer to dictionary and does not change by time (stable , unchanged)معنى ألكلمه الذي لا يتغير
    Like
    Woman: (n) an adult female human
    Pigeon: a large bird
    *Connotation: incident meaning المعنى الذي يتغير
    *Connotation of word change with the passage of time and change from one culture to another (unstable , changeable)
    معنى ألكلمه يتغير عبر الزمن ومن ثقافة إلى أخرى
    Woman
    Beauty sensitive frail crying
    Pigeon
    Freedom pace
    All these deepens of opinion of people ( give) جميعها تعتمد على اختلافات أراء الناس
    Converse terms
    *Converse terms : the existence of one word in the pair inevitable implies the existence of the other
    وجود كلمه واحد يستوجب وجود الأخرى
    Ali give Anwar a present = means
    Anwar receive a present from Ali
    Multiple Incompatibles
    *Multiple Incompatibles: many words together of antonyms are taken from "system of multiple in compatibility
    العديد من الكلمات المتضادة التي تأخذ من مجموعه من النظام معين
    Color>>> white=\= black
    We can say (the truth of one leads to the falsity of the other. But the falsity of one does not necessarily lead to the truth of the other like solid =\= liquid
    Synonyms
    It is important to note that no two words have exactly the same meaning. Even if two words have exactly the same referential meaning they may differ from the point of view of their emotive meaning or from the point of view of the associations they carry and the evocative effects the produce
    The meaning of words these words which have (more or less ) nearly the same meaning الكلمات التي لها نفس المعنى تقريبا
    Characteristic>>>>>>>>>>> feature , quality
    لا توجد كلمات لها نفس المعنى وان وجد فهناك في المعنى المعنوي
    In other word denotation meaning are similar but the connotation meaning are different
    قد يتشابهان في المعنى الأساسي ولكن المعنى الثانوي للكلمة لا يتشابهون فيه
    We have 3 terms refer to this topic
    1) synonym 3 (n)= the word
    2) synonymous (adj) = having the same meaning
    3) synonymy (n) = the concept
    The two tests of synonymy
    1) The test of substitutability = change the one word by another in the same context .
    I have a big house >>>> large
    I don't like such dirty jokes >>>>> filthy
    *but there are words that partial synonyms
    Beautiful
    Woman village present dog
    Handsome
    Woman village present dog
    If they are replace even in one context they still synonyms
    2)The test of opposition = if the two words in appear have the same antonym, they are synonyms
    الكلمات التي لها نفس التضاد تكون لها نفس المعنى
    Patterns of synonymy in English الأنماط المتشابه في ألغه الانجليزية
    1) The regional varieties \ dialects
    2) The origin (native- foreign )
    3) The emotional \evocative meaning
    4) The register
    5) The triple scale of native – French – Greek - Latin
    · Film (British) movie (American ) two different words have the same meaning because dialects
    · Help (native ) = aid ( foreign) >>>>>>here native is informal, similar and easy but is borrowed
    Strange is and formal
    · But we have words that are common in
    Deed (native) action (forging)
    Mead (native) reword (forging)
    3)We have two words different in emotional meaning for example
    Liberty >>>>>>>>> negatives >>>>>liberal
    Freedom >>>>>>>positive >>>>> to be free
    4)Register: is a language variety used for a particular purpose or in a particular social setting for example:
    Children / die (formal register) kids\ popof (informal register
    Father \ Mather (adult) daddy \ mamy ( children)
    Gentlemen \lady ( upper class ) chap\ woman ( common class)
    So we have synonyms in two different register.
    نقره لتكبير أو تصغير الصورة ونقرتين لعرض الصورة في صفحة مستقلة بحجمها الطبيعي
    بس وش لي في حلاتك دام فيهـا ترخصيـن
    حشمة البنـت وحياهـا والكرامـة يلفتـون

  5. #5

    الصورة الرمزية عشق اليمن
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    رد: Semantics متجدد

    Converse terms
    *Converse terms : the existence of one word in the pair inevitable implies the existence of the other
    وجود كلمه واحد يستوجب وجود الأخرى
    Ali give Anwar a present = means
    Anwar receive a present from Ali
    Multiple Incompatibles
    *Multiple Incompatibles: many words together of antonyms are taken from "system of multiple in compatibility
    العديد من الكلمات المتضادة التي تأخذ من مجموعه من النظام معين
    Color>>> white=\= black
    We can say (the truth of one leads to the falsity of the other. But the falsity of one does not necessarily lead to the truth of the other like solid =\= liquid

    Synonyms
    It is important to note that no two words have exactly the same meaning. Even if two words have exactly the same referential meaning they may differ from the point of view of their emotive meaning or from the point of view of the associations they carry and the evocative effects the produce
    The meaning of words these words which have (more or less ) nearly the same meaning الكلمات التي لها نفس المعنى تقريبا
    Characteristic>>>>>>>>>>> feature , quality
    لا توجد كلمات لها نفس المعنى وان وجد فهناك في المعنى المعنوي
    In other word denotation meaning are similar but the connotation meaning are different
    قد يتشابهان في المعنى الأساسي ولكن المعنى الثانوي للكلمة لا يتشابهون فيه
    We have 3 terms refer to this topic
    1) synonym 3 (n)= the word
    2) synonymous (adj) = having the same meaning
    3) synonymy (n) = the concept

    The two tests of synonymy
    1) The test of substitutability = change the one word by another in the same context .
    I have a big house >>>> large
    I don't like such dirty jokes >>>>> filthy

    *but there are words that partial synonyms
    Beautiful
    Woman village present dog
    Handsome
    Woman village present dog
    If they are replace even in one context they still synonyms
    2)The test of opposition = if the two words in appear have the same antonym, they are synonyms
    الكلمات التي لها نفس التضاد تكون لها نفس المعنى
    Patterns of synonymy in English الأنماط المتشابه في ألغه الانجليزية
    1) The regional varieties \ dialects
    2) The origin (native- foreign )
    3) The emotional \evocative meaning
    4) The register
    5) The triple scale of native – French – Greek - Latin
    • Film (British) movie (American ) two different words have the same meaning because dialects
    • Help (native ) = aid ( foreign) >>>>>>here native is informal, similar and easy but is borrowed
    Strange is and formal
    • But we have words that are common in
    Deed (native) action (forging)
    Mead (native) reword (forging)
    3)We have two words different in emotional meaning for example
    Liberty >>>>>>>>> negatives >>>>>liberal
    Freedom >>>>>>>positive >>>>> to be free
    4)Register: is a language variety used for a particular purpose or in a particular social setting for example:
    Children / die (formal register) kids\ popof (informal register
    Father \ Mather (adult) daddy \ mamy ( children)
    Gentlemen \lady ( upper class ) chap\ woman ( common class)
    So we have synonyms in two different register.
    نقره لتكبير أو تصغير الصورة ونقرتين لعرض الصورة في صفحة مستقلة بحجمها الطبيعي
    بس وش لي في حلاتك دام فيهـا ترخصيـن
    حشمة البنـت وحياهـا والكرامـة يلفتـون

  6. #6

    الصورة الرمزية عشق اليمن
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    رد: Semantics متجدد


    Homonyms
    Those words which have different meaning and unrelated but the same pronunciation and or the same spelling.
    A homonym (n) the word
    A homonymous (adj) burins the same
    A homonymy (n) the process \ concept
    • Homographous : same spelling different pronunciation different meaning in other word homographous word which have identical meaning الكلمات التي لها نفس الأحرف مع اختلاف المعنى النطق
    Lead /…………./ = the name of metal , lead / ……………../ = to show the way
    Row /…………../ = noisy quarrel or argument , row /…………../ to propel a boat by using oar
    For more example see page 32
    • Words have different meaning and different spellings but the same pronunciation
    • كلمات لها معنى مختلف وأحرف مختلفة مع تشابه النطق
    Feet /…………./ , feat /…………/
    Hear/,,,,,,,,,,,,,,/ , here /……………./
    • Words which have different meanings but the same pronunciation and the same spelling
    • كلمات لها معنى مختلف ولكن لها نفس النطق والنفس الأحرف
    Bank= the bank of river bank= organization for keeping money safely
    Ear= organ of hearing ear= seed- bearing part of a cereal plant like wheat, barley etc
    Words in such pairs are homophonous and also homographous.

    Polysemy
    Those words which have a number of cognitive meanings " denotative الكمه التي لها عدت معاني
    Each of these has a primary meaning and also one or more secondary meanings,
    وجميعها لديها معنى أساسي وأيضا إمعاني ثانوية
    The secondary meanings of such words are metaphorical extensions of their primer meaning
    والمعنى الثانوي في كل كلمه هي امتداد لمعنى مجازي
    • Foot = moveable part at the end leg >>>>>>>>> primary meaning
    = bottom part of a mountain a bed >>>>>>secondary meaning (meta, extern)
    • Mouse: a small animal >>>>>>primary meaning
    an input device of a computer >>>>>> meta
    difference between polysemy and homonymy
    • Polysemy : is a word having two or more related meaning كلمه لها عدت معاني
    • Homonymy: those words have different and unrelated meanings but the same pronunciation and or same spelling الكلمات التى لها معنى مختلف ولكن لها نفس النطق او نفس الكتابه
    • Polysemy: different but related because they have the same function or shape مختلفات ولكن لها نفس الوظيفه او الشكل

    Hyponyms
    If the meaning of one word includes the meaning of another word, the meaning relation between such words is known as hyponymy اذا كان المعنى لكلمه يتعلق بمعنى كلمه أخرى هذا يعني انها هناك علاقة بين الكلمات ويعتبر
    • Hyponym (n) >>>>>word
    • Hyponymous (adj) >>>> have the same relation
    • Hyponymy : the concept – process

    Hyponymy is different from the meaning relation between a whole and its parts.
    Flowers (superoediante word )

    (kinds) Rose lily daffodil ( hyponymy) (co-hyponyms)

    Body
    Lag hand face (parts)
    This is not hyponyms because: hyponymy is bases on the notion of " a kind of " and not on the notion of " apart of
    لان لا يركز على أجزاء ألكلمه بل على اتواعها
    Animals
    ^
    ^
    Sheep
    ^
    Ram ewe lamb
    The same word may be a superodinate term in relation to certain words and a hyponym in relation to another words
    قد تكون ألكلمه الاساسيه جزء من كلمه أخرى
    We don't use it in a live but it use in botany علم النبات Zoology علم الحيوان
    Comprehensively and systematically على نحو شامل ومنهجي
    نقره لتكبير أو تصغير الصورة ونقرتين لعرض الصورة في صفحة مستقلة بحجمها الطبيعي
    بس وش لي في حلاتك دام فيهـا ترخصيـن
    حشمة البنـت وحياهـا والكرامـة يلفتـون

  7. #7

    الصورة الرمزية عشق اليمن
    تاريخ التسجيل
    Oct 2011
    المشاركات
    328
    معدل تقييم المستوى
    158

    رد: Semantics متجدد



    كامل من البدايه الى النهايه

    Some Basic Concepts In Semantics
    Sentence
    A sentence is an ideal string of words formed in accordance with the grammatical rules of a language (written) جمله تامة بقواعد صحيحة ( كتابه)
    it's highest of grammar sentence is Written grammar meaningful stretch of language
    1-sentence is higher than clause
    2-clause is higher than phrase
    3-phrase is higher than the word
    Independent: it's complete is meaning the sentence
    S+ v+ C في الجملة يجب إكمالها لتكون نحويا
    e.g.: She gets up early
    she always get up early
    utterance
    *An Utterance : is any stretch of language spoken by a person at a certain and place on a certain occasion. الكلام: هو امتداد للغه التي يتحدث بها الشخص في مكان معين و ومناسبة معينه (كلام)
    ( spoken A meaningless sequence of sounds like the
    following cannot be considered an utterance
    proposition
    *A proposition: A proposition is semantic content of a simple declarative sentence, just as the sentence is essentially a grammatical concept the proposition is essentially a semantic concept . هو المحتوى الدلالي, وكما ان المعنى أساس في الجملة, يكون المعنى أساس في الخبر.
    Differences between a sentence and an utterance
    *An utterance; should not be full sentence and it's could be full ( fine) or (I'm fine)
    utterance عندما تكون الاجابه وحده على كل الاسئله تكون قد تكون الجملة تامة وقد لا تكتمل والمهم انه تكون لها معنى واضح
    *A Sentence: should be full sentence (I'm fine)يجب أن تكون الجملة تامة
    *An utterance : should not be part of sentence it could be of number sentences in a sequence. Hi, How are you, are you fine قد تكون جزى من الجمل او تكون عدت جمل في نفس السياق
    *An Utterance is necessarily a physical event, in utterance have a pause =silent
    يجب أن تستخدم أعضاء النطق لأنها شفوية, ويوجد فيها سكوت بين الكلام
    *It need not begins with capital letter and an end with punctuation mark and question
    لا نحتاج لكتابه بالحروف الكبيرة او علامات الترقيم لأنها تظهر بصوت الشخص المتكلم نوع الجملة
    *A sentence: generally begins with a capital letter and ends with punctuation mark
    يجب أن تبدى الجملة بحرف كبير وتنتهي بعلامات الترقيم
    *An utterance: when we repeat the same sentence many time like Hi….Hi…Hi we will have 3 utterance but it should be there silent between every word
    utterances عند دما يتكرر نطق الجمله اكثر من مره يصبح لدينا اكثر من
    Hello , Hello , Hello تعتبر ثلاث جمل وأيضا ثلاث ألفاظ
    *An utterance is the spoken form of a stretch if language it can be slow or fast , faint or loud. بطيي او سريع منخفض مرتفع utterance يمكن ان يكون في

    *Sentence: cannot be slow or fast, faint and loud لا يمكن ان تكون الجملة بطيئة او سريع هاو منخفض او مرتفعه ا
    *Accent and voice quality can be feature of utterance only. ( utterance تغيير الصوت او لهجة من سمات
    *A Sentence: we can't change the meaning by the voice لا نستطيع تغيير معنى الجمله بواسطة الصوت
    *An utterance : need not be in the form of a complete sentence having a clearly it's nay well be in the form of only a word or phrase or a clause operating as a full sentence
    لا تحتاج أن نكمل الجملة ويجب أن تكون واضحة ولها معنى وقد تكون كلمه او عباره او كلمات وتظهر جمله لانها لها معنى واضح
    Will you be here tomorrow?
    Yes
    Difference between a sentence and a proposition
    *when we change the order of words it will become another sentence like
    عند تعيير ترتيب الجمله تصبح لدينا جمله أخرى
    *A proposition: when we change the order of words it doesn't change the meaning so we have one proposition
    عند تغيير ترتيب الجملة لا يصبح لدينا معنى مختلف
    He gave the books away \ He gave away the books
    In this example we have two sentence but we have one proposition
    في هذا الامثله لدينا جملتين ولدينا معنى واحد فقط
    *when we change the structure of sentence we will get another sentence
    عندما نغير بنيه الجمله سوف يصبح لدينا جمله اخرى
    *when we change the structure of sentence we will have the same preposition
    عندما نغير بنيه الجمله لا يتغير المعنى
    John envies Jim جون يحسد جيم
    John is envies of Jim جون هو يغار من جيم
    *A sentence is a grammatical entity تتكون الجمله من بنيه نحويه
    *A proposition: is a semantic notion المعنى الدلالي
    John Keats wrote this poem
    This poem was written by John Keats
    Have separate sentences but they are not two different proposition
    لدينا بنيتين مختلفتي لذلك لدينا جملتين والمعنى واحد
    &-change the voice of sentence makes another sentence
    &change the voice of a simple declarative sentence does not make it another sentence
    Analytic sentence
    *An analytic sentence is a sentence the proposition content of which is necessarily true يجب ان تكون صادقه ولا تحتمل الكذب
    Dogs are animals / 1+1=2
    Synthetic Sentence
    *A synthetic sentence is a sentence the propositional content of which may be either true or flues جمله تحتمل الصواب والخطى
    His wife is always in a bad mood / I have a lot of money
    Contradiction
    *A contradiction is a sentence the propositional content of which is necessarily false جمله دائما غير صائبة المعنى في الجملة خاطئ
    Cats are human beings
    Entailment
    *Entailment is a property of proposition. If the truth of proposition B follows necessarily from the truth of proposition
    We say that proposition A entails proposition B
    الاستتباع:اذا كانت الحقيقة في الجملة الثانية يستوجب اتبع الحقيقة في الجملة الأولى ونقول الجملة الأولى تستوجب الجملة الثانية
    A-Mary killed Barbara
    B-Barbara died
    الجملة الأولى تستوجب وجود المعنى للجملة الثانية ولكن الجملة الثانية لا تستوجب وجود الجملة الأولى
    Proportion A entails proposition B
    • Entailment divided to two types
    First one is unilateral: (الجملة الأولى تستوجب الجملة الثانية والعكس غير صحيح)
    A-He is from India
    B- He is from Asia
    الجملة الأولى تستوجب المعنى للجملة الثانية والجملة الثانية لا تستوجب المعنى للجملة الأولى
    Second: bilateral (استجاب الجمليتين لبعضهما )
    A-Mona resembles Barbara
    B_ Barbara resembles Mona
    كل جمله تستوجب المعنى في الجملة الثانية
    وفي بعض الأحيان قد تكون أعاده صياغ
    This place is different from that place
    That place is different from this place
    Paraphrase
    A sentence which expresses the same proposition as another sentence is known as the paraphrase of that sentence اعاده الصياغ
    A_ John sold that car to Mary
    B-Mary bought that car from John
    In these sentence A is the paraphrase of B just as B is the paraphrase of A
    الجملة الثانية فقط أعاده صياغة من ألجمله الأولى
    Sense and reference
    *Reference: used in its technical sense in semantics tells us about the relationship between languages and the outside word الكلمات التى لها معنى او جود خارج الغه
    Like
    Lions: refers to all those large, strong, flash-eating animals
    Taj Mahan: refers to building at Agra in Indian
    *Sense: relationship inside the language. Which do not refer to anything in the world
    Like a person and animals (outside language ) like and , or , if ……… etc
    These words have a sense but no reference
    Sense relationship inside a language itself الكلمات التي ليس لها وجود او معنى خارج الغه
    Like
    (Morning star and evening star ) they mean the same thing (plant venous) so we say they have no difference in outside a language (semantic) but in semantic have different because we say morning Star in Morning and evening star in evening
    كلماتنا لهما كيان واحد في العالم الخارجي مع اختلاف المعنى فنجم الصباح يقال عن الصباح ونجم أليل يقال في نجم أليل
    Denotation Connotation
    Denotation: primary meaning (the basic meaning of word المعنى الأساسي للكلمة
    Denotation: of a word is the object or the objects that it refers to in the world outside language الكلمات التي لها كيان خارج ألغه
    Meaning of word which refer to dictionary and does not change by time (stable , unchanged)معنى ألكلمه الذي لا يتغير
    Like
    Woman: (n) an adult female human
    Pigeon: a large bird
    *Connotation: incident meaning المعنى الذي يتغير
    *Connotation of word change with the passage of time and change from one culture to another (unstable , changeable) معنى ألكلمه يتغير عبر الزمن ومن ثقافة إلى أخرى

    Woman

    Beauty sensitive frail crying

    Pigeon
    Freedom pace
    All these deepens of opinion of people ( give) جميعها تعتمد على اختلافات أراء الناس
    Converse terms
    *Converse terms : the existence of one word in the pair inevitable implies the existence of the other وجود كلمه واحد يستوجب وجود الأخرى
    Ali give Anwar a present = means
    Anwar receive a present from Ali
    when we add er or more in gradable words became converse terms like small smaller
    Multiple Incompatibles
    *Multiple Incompatibles: many words together of antonyms are taken from "system of multiple in compatibility
    العديد من الكلمات المتضادة التي تأخذ من مجموعه من النظام معين
    Color>>> white=\= black
    We can say (the truth of one leads to the falsity of the other. But the falsity of one does not necessarily lead to the truth of the other like solid =\= liquid
    Synonyms
    It is important to note that no two words have exactly the same meaning. Even if two words have exactly the same referential meaning they may differ from the point of view of their emotive meaning or from the point of view of the associations they carry and the evocative effects the produce لا توجد هناك كلمات لها نفس المعنى وان وجد فلابد ان يكون باختلاف وان كان بسيط
    The meaning of words these words which have (more or less ) nearly the same meaning
    الكلمات التي لها نفس المعنى تقريبا
    Characteristic>>>>>>>>>>> feature , quality
    لا توجد كلمات لها نفس المعنى وان وجد فهناك في المعنى المعنوي
    In other word denotation meaning are similar but the connotation meaning are different
    قد يتشابهان في المعنى الأساسي ولكن المعنى الثانوي للكلمة لا يتشابهون فيه
    We have 3 terms refer to this topic
    1) synonym 3 (n)= the word
    2) synonymous (adj) = having the same meaning
    3) synonymy (n) = the concept
    The two tests of synonymy
    1) The test of substitutability = change the one word by another in the same context .
    I have a big house >>>> large
    I don't like such dirty jokes >>>>> filthy

    *but there are words that partial synonyms
    Beautiful
    Woman village present dog
    Handsome
    Woman village present dog
    If they are replace even in one context they still synonyms
    2)The test of opposition = if the two words in appear have the same antonym, they are synonyms الكلمات التي لها نفس التضاد تكون لها نفس المعنى
    Patterns of synonymy in English الأنماط المتشابه في ألغه الانجليزية
    1) The regional varieties \ dialects
    2) The origin (native- foreign )
    3) The emotional \evocative meaning
    4) The register
    5) The triple scale of native – French – Greek - Latin
    • Film (British) movie (American ) two different words have the same meaning because dialects
    • Help (native ) = aid ( foreign) >>>>>>here native is informal, similar and easy but is borrowed
    Strange is and formal
    • But we have words that are common in
    Deed (native) action (forging)
    Mead (native) reword (forging)
    3)We have two words different in emotional meaning for example
    Liberty >>>>>>>>> negatives >>>>>liberal
    Freedom >>>>>>>positive >>>>> to be free
    4)Register: is a language variety used for a particular purpose or in a particular social setting for example:
    Children / die (formal register) kids\ popof (informal register
    Father \ Mather (adult) daddy \ mamy ( children)
    Gentlemen \lady ( upper class ) chap\ woman ( common class)
    So we have synonyms in two different register.
    Homonyms
    Those words which have different meaning and unrelated but the same pronunciation and or the same spelling.
    A homonym (n) the word
    A homonymous (adj) burins the same
    A homonymy (n) the process \ concept
    • Homographous : same spelling different pronunciation different meaning in other word homographous word which have identical meaning الكلمات التي لها نفس الأحرف مع اختلاف المعنى النطق Lead /…………./ = the name of metal , lead / ……………../ = to show the way
    Row /…………../ = noisy quarrel or argument , row /…………../ to propel a boat by using oar
    For more example see page 32
    • Words have different meaning and different spellings but the same pronunciation
    • كلمات لها معنى مختلف وأحرف مختلفة مع تشابه النطق
    Feet /…………./ , feat /…………/
    Hear/,,,,,,,,,,,,,,/ , here /……………./
    • Words which have different meanings but the same pronunciation and the same spelling
    • كلمات لها معنى مختلف ولكن لها نفس النطق والنفس الأحرف
    Bank= the bank of river bank= organization for keeping money safely
    Ear= organ of hearing ear= seed- bearing part of a cereal plant like wheat, barley etc
    Words in such pairs are homophonous and also homographous.
    Polysemy
    Those words which have a number of cognitive meanings " denotative الكلمه التي لها عدت معاني
    Each of these has a primary meaning and also one or more secondary meanings,
    وجميعها لديها معنى أساسي وأيضا إمعاني ثانوية
    The secondary meanings of such words are metaphorical extensions of their primer meaning والمعنى الثانوي في كل كلمه هي امتداد لمعنى مجازي
    • Foot = moveable part at the end leg >>>>>>>>> primary meaning
    = bottom part of a mountain a bed >>>>>>secondary meaning (meta, extern)
    • Mouse: a small animal >>>>>>primary meaning
    an input device of a computer >>>>>> meta
    difference between polysemy and homonymy
    • Polysemy : is a word having two or more related meaning كلمه لها عدت معاني
    • Homonymy: those words have different and unrelated meanings but the same pronunciation and or same spelling الكلمات التى لها معنى مختلف ولكن لها نفس النطق او نفس الكتابه
    • Polysemy: different but related because they have the same function or shape
    • مختلفات ولكن لها نفس الوظيفة او الشكل
    Hyponyms
    If the meaning of one word includes the meaning of another word, the meaning relation between such words is known as hyponymy
    اذا كان المعنى لكلمه يتعلق بمعنى كلمه أخرى هذا يعني انها هناك علاقة بين الكلمات ويعتبر
    • Hyponym (n) >>>>>word
    • Hyponymous (adj) >>>> have the same relation
    • Hyponymy : the concept – process
    Hyponymy is different from the meaning relation between a whole and its parts.
    Flowers (superoediante word )

    (kinds) Rose lily daffodil
    ( hyponymy) general name for this group الاسم العام للمجموعات الكلمات
    (co-hyponyms) related between words العلاقة بين الكلمات
    Body

    Lag hand face (parts)
    This is not hyponyms because: hyponymy is bases on the notion of " a kind of " and not on the notion of " apart of لان لا يركز على أجزاء ألكلمه بل على اتواعها
    Animals
    Sheep

    Ram ewe lamb
    The same word may be a superodinate term in relation to certain words and a hyponym in relation to another words
    قد تكون ألكلمه الاساسيه جزء من كلمه أخرى
    We don't use it in a live but it use in botany علم النبات Zoology علم الحيوان
    Comprehensively and systematically على نحو شامل ومنهجي
    The semantics of prefixes and suffixes in English
    prefixes : adding in beginning of words
    Suffixes: adding in ending of word
    Affixation is the addition of a prefix or a suffix to a word for the purpose (function) of
    1) making another words (laugh يضحك – laugher ضاحك,, scholar عالم- scholarshipثقافة ) لصنع كلمات جديدة
    2) Or another form of the same word (nice- nicer, boy, boys) او لشكل اخر كجمع
    The change usually takes place at three levels simultaneously.
    1) Level of morphology
    2) Level of syntax يناء الكلمة
    3) Level of semantics
    "polysemic" Prefixes and suffix
    Prefix \ suffix Meaning Examples
    Bi- (- means its prefix) (a) twice in one period bi- annual = twice in a year
    bi-monthly = twice in a month
    (d) once in a period of two biennial = once in two years
    Bicentennial = once in two hundred
    (c) having two bilingual = having two languages
    Bilateral= having two sides
    كلمات لها معنى متقارب او عمل متشابه (bi)
    "Homonymous" prefixes and suffixes
    Prefix \ suffix Meaning Examples
    -er (-… suffix) (a) not, without amoral= not concerned with morals
    (b) in the state of asleep= in the state of sleep
    كلمات مختلفة في المعنى والعمل (-er)
    الفرق بين (polysemy and homonymy ) ان (polysemy) نفس الكلمه مع تقارب بالمعنى او العمل
    (homonymy)نفس ألكلمه مع اختلف بالعمل والمعنى
    (ملاحظه يجب حفظ الكلمات التي في أمثله الكتاب وتمارينه)

    هذا علمي وما جاكم شر



    نقره لتكبير أو تصغير الصورة ونقرتين لعرض الصورة في صفحة مستقلة بحجمها الطبيعي
    بس وش لي في حلاتك دام فيهـا ترخصيـن
    حشمة البنـت وحياهـا والكرامـة يلفتـون

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