عرض للطباعة
Some Basic Concepts In SemanticsSentenceA sentence is an ideal string of words formed in accordance with the grammatical rules of a languageit's highest of grammar sentence is Written grammar meaningful stretch of language1-sentence is higher than clause2-clause is higher than phrase3-phrase is higher than the wordIndependent: it's complete is meaning the sentenceS+ v+ C في الجملة يجب إكمالها لتكون نحوياe.g.: She gets up earlyshe always get up earlyutterance*An Utterance : is any stretch of language spoken by a person at a certain and place on a certain occasion.الكلام: هو امتداد للغه التي يتحدث بها الشخص في مكان معين و ومناسبة معينه( spoken A meaningless sequence of sounds like thefollowing cannot be considered an utteranceproposition*proposition: A proposition is semantic content of a simple declarative sentenceThe proposition is essentially a semantic conceptDifferences between a sentence and an utterance*An utterance; should not be full sentence and it's could be full ( fine) or (I'm fine)utterance عندما تكون الاجابه وحده على كل الاسئله تكون قد تكون الجمله تامه وقد لا تكتمل والمهم انه تكون لها معنى واضح*A Sentence: should be full sentence (I'm fine)يجب أن تكون الجملة تامة*An utterance : should not be part of sentence it could be of number sentences in a sequence. Hi, How are you, are you fineقد تكون جزى من الجمل او تكون عدت جمل في نفس السياق*An Utterance is necessarily a physical event, in utterance have a pause =silentيجب أن تستخدم أعضاء النطق لأنها شفوية, ويوجد فيها سكوت بين الكلام*It need not begins with capital letter and an end with punctuation mark and questionلا نحتاج لكتابه بالحروف الكبيره او علامات الترقيم وعلامه الاستفهام لانها تظهر بصوت الشخص المتكلم نوع الجمله*A sentence: generally begins with a capital letter and ends with punctuation markيجب ان تبدى الجمله بحرف كبير وتنتهي بعلامات الترقيم*An utterance: when we repeat the same sentence many time like Hi….Hi…Hi we will have 3 utterance but it should be there silent between every wordutterances عند دما يتكرر نطق الجمله اكثر من مره يصبح لدينا اكثر منHello , Hello , Hello تعتبر ثلاث جمل وأيضا ثلاث ألفاظ*Anutterance is the spoken form of a stretch if language it can be slow or fast , faint or loud. بطيي او سريع منخفض مرتفع utterance يمكن ان يكون في*Sentence: cannot be slow or fast, faint and loud لا يمكن ان تكون الجملة بطيئة او سريع هاو منخفض او مرتفعه ا*Accent and voice quality can be feature of utterance only. ( utterance تغيير الصوت او لهجة من سمات (*A Sentence: we can't change the meaning by the voice لا نستطيع تغيير معنى الجمله بواسطة الصوت*An utterance : need not be in the form of a complete sentence having a clearly it's nay well be in the form of only a word or phrase or a clause operating as a full sentenceلا تحتاج أن نكمل الجملة ويجب أن تكون واضحة ولها معنى وقد تكون كلمه او عباره او كلمات وتظهر جمله لانها لها معنى واضحWill you be here tomorrow?YesDifference between a sentence and a proposition*when we change the order of words it will become another sentence likeعند تعيير ترتيب الجمله تصبح لدينا جمله أخرى*A proposition: when we change the order of words it doesn't change the meaning so we have one propositionعند تغيير ترتيب الجملة لا يصبح لدينا معنى مختلفHe gave the books awayHe gave away the booksIn this example we have two sentence but we have one proposition في هذا الامثله لدينا جملتين ولدينا معنى واحد فقط*when we change the structure of sentence we will get another sentenceعندما نغير بنيه الجمله سوف يصبح لدينا جمله اخرى*when we change the structure of sentence we will have the sameprepositionعندما نغير بنيه الجمله لا يتغير المعنىJohn envies Jim جون يحسد جيمJohn is envies of Jim جون هو يغار من جيم*A sentence is a grammatical entity تتكون الجمله من بنيه نحويه*A proposition: is a semantic notion المعنى الدلاليJohn Keats wrote this poemThis poem was written by John KeatsHave separate sentences but they are not two different propositionلدينا بنيتين مختلفتي لذلك لدينا جملتين والمعنى واحد&-change the voice of sentence makes another sentence&change the voice of a simple declarative sentence does not make it another sentence
Analytic sentence*An analytic sentence is a sentence the proposition content of which is necessarily true يجب ان تكون صادقه ولا تحتمل الكذبDogs are animalsSynthetic Sentence*A synthetic sentence is a sentence the propositional content of which may be either true or fluesجمله تحتمل الصواب والخطىHis wife is always in a bad moodContradiction*A contradiction is a sentence the propositional content of which is necessarily false جمله دائما غير صائبةCats are human beingsEntailment*Entailment is a property of proposition. If the truth of proposition B follows necessarily from the truth of proposition AWe say that proposition A entails proposition Bالاستتباع:اذا كانت الحقيقة في الجملة الثانية يستوجب اتبع الحقيقة في الجملة الأولى ونقول الجملة الأولى تستوجب الجملة الثانيةA-Mary killed BarbaraB-Barbara diedالجملة الأولى تستوجب وجود المعنى للجملة الثانية ولكن الجملة الثانية لا تستوجب وجود الجملة الأولىProportion A entails proposition BA-Mary killed BarbaraB- Barbara diedالجملة الثانية لاستوجب وجود الجملة الأولى ولكن الجملة الأولى تستوجب وجود الجملة الثانيةProposition A entails proposition BEntailment divided to two typesFirst one is unilateral: (الجملة الأولى تستوجب الجملة الثانية والعكس غير صحيح)A-He is from IndiaB- He is from Asiaالجملة الأولى تستوجب المعنى للجملة الثانية والجملة الثانية لاستوجب المعنى للجملة الأولىSecond: bilateral(استيجاب الجمليتين لبعضهما )A-Mona resembles BarbaraB_ Barbara resembles Monaكل جمله تستوجب المعنى في الجملة الثانيةوفي بعض الأحيان قد تكون أعاده صياغThis place is different from that placeThat place is different from this placeParaphraseA sentence which expresses the same proposition as another sentence is known as the paraphrase of that sentence اعاده الصياغA_ John sold that car to MaryB-Mary bought that car from JohnIn these sentence A is the paraphrase of B just as B is the paraphrase of ASense and referenceReference: used in its technical sense in semantics tells us about the relationship between languages and the outside word الكلمات التى لها معنى او جود خارج الغهLikeLions: refers to all those large, strong, flash-eating animalsTaj Mahan: refers to building at Agra in IndianSense: relationship inside the language. Which do not refer to anything in the worldLike a person and animals (outside language ) like and , or , if ……… etcThese words have a sense but no referenceSense relationship inside a language itself الكلمات التي ليس لها وجود او معنى خارج الغهLike(Morning star and evening star ) they mean the same thing (plant venous) so we say they have no difference in outside a language (semantic) but in semantic have different because we say morning Star in Morning and evening star in eveningDenotation ConnotationDenotation: primary meaning (the basic meaning of word المعنى الأساسي للكلمةDenotation: of a word is the object or the objects that it refers to in the world outside language الكلمات التي لها كيان خارج ألغهMeaning of word which refer to dictionary and does not change by time (stable , unchanged)معنى ألكلمه الذي لا يتغيرLikeWoman: (n) an adult female humanPigeon: a large birdConnotation: incident meaning المعنى الذي يتغيرConnotation of word change with the passage of time and change from one culture to another (unstable , changeable)معنى ألكلمه يتغير عبر الزمن ومن ثقافة إلى أخرىWomanBeauty sensitive frail cryingPigeonFreedom paceAll these deepens of opinion of people ( give) جميعها تعتمد على اختلافات أراء الناس
Analytic sentence*An analytic sentenceis a sentence the proposition content of which is necessarily true يجب ان تكون صادقه ولا تحتمل الكذبDogs are animalsSynthetic Sentence*A synthetic sentence is a sentence the propositional content of which may be either true or fluesجمله تحتمل الصواب والخطىHis wife is always in a bad moodContradiction*A contradiction is a sentence the propositional content of which is necessarily false جمله دائما غير صائبةCats are human beingsEntailment*Entailment is a property of proposition. If the truth of proposition B follows necessarily from the truth of propositionWe say that proposition A entails proposition Bالاستتباع:اذا كانت الحقيقة في الجملة الثانية يستوجب اتبع الحقيقة في الجملة الأولى ونقول الجملة الأولى تستوجب الجملة الثانيةA-Mary killed BarbaraB-Barbara diedالجملة الأولى تستوجب وجود المعنى للجملة الثانية ولكن الجملة الثانية لا تستوجب وجود الجملة الأولىProportion A entails proposition BA-Mary killed BarbaraB- Barbara diedالجملة الثانية لا تستوجب وجود الجملة الأولى ولكن الجملة الأولى تستوجب وجود الجملة الثانيةProposition A entails proposition B
Entailment divided to two typesFirst one is unilateral: (الجملة الأولى تستوجب الجملة الثانية والعكس غير صحيح)A-He is from IndiaB- He is from Asiaالجملة الأولى تستوجب المعنى للجملة الثانية والجملة الثانية لا تستوجب المعنى للجملة الأولى* Second: bilateral(استجاب الجمليتين لبعضهما )A-Mona resembles BarbaraB_ Barbara resembles Monaكل جمله تستوجب المعنى في الجملة الثانيةوفي بعض الأحيان قد تكون أعاده صياغThis place is different from that placeThat place is different from this placeParaphraseA sentence which expresses the same proposition as another sentence is known as the paraphrase of that sentence اعاده الصياغA_ John sold that car to MaryB-Mary bought that car from JohnIn these sentence A is the paraphrase of B just as B is the paraphrase of ASense and reference*Reference: used in its technical sense in semantics tells us about the relationship between languages and the outside word الكلمات التى لها معنى او جود خارج الغهLikeLions: refers to all those large, strong, flash-eating animalsTaj Mahan: refers to building at Agra in Indian*Sense: relationship inside the language. Which do not refer to anything in the worldLike a person and animals (outside language ) like and , or , if ……… etcThese words have a sense but no referenceSense relationship inside a language itself الكلمات التي ليس لها وجود او معنى خارج الغهLike(Morning star and evening star ) they mean the same thing (plant venous) so we say they have no difference in outside a language (semantic) but in semantic have different because we say morning Star in Morning and evening star in eveningDenotation Connotation*Denotation: primary meaning (the basic meaning of word المعنى الأساسي للكلمة*Denotation: of a word is the object or the objects that it refers to in the world outside language الكلمات التي لها كيان خارج ألغهMeaning of word which refer to dictionary and does not change by time (stable , unchanged)معنى ألكلمه الذي لا يتغيرLikeWoman: (n) an adult female humanPigeon: a large bird*Connotation: incident meaning المعنى الذي يتغير*Connotation of word change with the passage of time and change from one culture to another (unstable , changeable)معنى ألكلمه يتغير عبر الزمن ومن ثقافة إلى أخرىWomanBeauty sensitive frail cryingPigeonFreedom paceAll these deepens of opinion of people ( give) جميعها تعتمد على اختلافات أراء الناسConverse terms*Converse terms : the existence of one word in the pair inevitable implies the existence of the otherوجود كلمه واحد يستوجب وجود الأخرىAli give Anwar a present = meansAnwar receive a present from AliMultiple Incompatibles*Multiple Incompatibles: many words together of antonyms are taken from "system of multiple in compatibilityالعديد من الكلمات المتضادة التي تأخذ من مجموعه من النظام معينColor>>> white=\= blackWe can say (the truth of one leads to the falsity of the other. But the falsity of one does not necessarily lead to the truth of the other like solid =\= liquidSynonymsIt is important to note that no two words have exactly the same meaning. Even if two words have exactly the same referential meaning they may differ from the point of view of their emotive meaning or from the point of view of the associations they carry and the evocative effects the produceThe meaning of words these words which have (more or less ) nearly the same meaning الكلمات التي لها نفس المعنى تقريباCharacteristic>>>>>>>>>>> feature , qualityلا توجد كلمات لها نفس المعنى وان وجد فهناك في المعنى المعنويIn other word denotation meaning are similar but the connotation meaning are differentقد يتشابهان في المعنى الأساسي ولكن المعنى الثانوي للكلمة لا يتشابهون فيهWe have 3 terms refer to this topic1) synonym 3 (n)= the word2) synonymous (adj) = having the same meaning3) synonymy (n) = the conceptThe two tests of synonymy1) The test of substitutability = change the one word by another in the same context .I have a big house >>>> largeI don't like such dirty jokes >>>>> filthy*but there are words that partial synonymsBeautifulWoman village present dogHandsomeWoman village present dogIf they are replace even in one context they still synonyms2)The test of opposition = if the two words in appear have the same antonym, they are synonymsالكلمات التي لها نفس التضاد تكون لها نفس المعنىPatterns of synonymy in English الأنماط المتشابه في ألغه الانجليزية1) The regional varieties \ dialects2) The origin (native- foreign )3) The emotional \evocative meaning4) The register5) The triple scale of native – French – Greek - Latin· Film (British) movie (American ) two different words have the same meaning because dialects· Help (native ) = aid ( foreign) >>>>>>here native is informal, similar and easy but is borrowedStrange is and formal· But we have words that are common inDeed (native) action (forging)Mead (native) reword (forging)3)We have two words different in emotional meaning for exampleLiberty >>>>>>>>> negatives >>>>>liberalFreedom >>>>>>>positive >>>>> to be free4)Register: is a language variety used for a particular purpose or in a particular social setting for example:Children / die (formal register) kids\ popof (informal registerFather \ Mather (adult) daddy \ mamy ( children)Gentlemen \lady ( upper class ) chap\ woman ( common class)So we have synonyms in two different register.
Converse terms
*Converse terms : the existence of one word in the pair inevitable implies the existence of the other
وجود كلمه واحد يستوجب وجود الأخرى
Ali give Anwar a present = means
Anwar receive a present from Ali
Multiple Incompatibles
*Multiple Incompatibles: many words together of antonyms are taken from "system of multiple in compatibility
العديد من الكلمات المتضادة التي تأخذ من مجموعه من النظام معين
Color>>> white=\= black
We can say (the truth of one leads to the falsity of the other. But the falsity of one does not necessarily lead to the truth of the other like solid =\= liquid
Synonyms
It is important to note that no two words have exactly the same meaning. Even if two words have exactly the same referential meaning they may differ from the point of view of their emotive meaning or from the point of view of the associations they carry and the evocative effects the produce
The meaning of words these words which have (more or less ) nearly the same meaning الكلمات التي لها نفس المعنى تقريبا
Characteristic>>>>>>>>>>> feature , quality
لا توجد كلمات لها نفس المعنى وان وجد فهناك في المعنى المعنوي
In other word denotation meaning are similar but the connotation meaning are different
قد يتشابهان في المعنى الأساسي ولكن المعنى الثانوي للكلمة لا يتشابهون فيه
We have 3 terms refer to this topic
1) synonym 3 (n)= the word
2) synonymous (adj) = having the same meaning
3) synonymy (n) = the concept
The two tests of synonymy
1) The test of substitutability = change the one word by another in the same context .
I have a big house >>>> large
I don't like such dirty jokes >>>>> filthy
*but there are words that partial synonyms
Beautiful
Woman village present dog
Handsome
Woman village present dog
If they are replace even in one context they still synonyms
2)The test of opposition = if the two words in appear have the same antonym, they are synonyms
الكلمات التي لها نفس التضاد تكون لها نفس المعنى
Patterns of synonymy in English الأنماط المتشابه في ألغه الانجليزية
1) The regional varieties \ dialects
2) The origin (native- foreign )
3) The emotional \evocative meaning
4) The register
5) The triple scale of native – French – Greek - Latin
• Film (British) movie (American ) two different words have the same meaning because dialects
• Help (native ) = aid ( foreign) >>>>>>here native is informal, similar and easy but is borrowed
Strange is and formal
• But we have words that are common in
Deed (native) action (forging)
Mead (native) reword (forging)
3)We have two words different in emotional meaning for example
Liberty >>>>>>>>> negatives >>>>>liberal
Freedom >>>>>>>positive >>>>> to be free
4)Register: is a language variety used for a particular purpose or in a particular social setting for example:
Children / die (formal register) kids\ popof (informal register
Father \ Mather (adult) daddy \ mamy ( children)
Gentlemen \lady ( upper class ) chap\ woman ( common class)
So we have synonyms in two different register.
Homonyms
Those words which have different meaning and unrelated but the same pronunciation and or the same spelling.
A homonym (n) the word
A homonymous (adj) burins the same
A homonymy (n) the process \ concept
• Homographous : same spelling different pronunciation different meaning in other word homographous word which have identical meaning الكلمات التي لها نفس الأحرف مع اختلاف المعنى النطق
Lead /…………./ = the name of metal , lead / ……………../ = to show the way
Row /…………../ = noisy quarrel or argument , row /…………../ to propel a boat by using oar
For more example see page 32
• Words have different meaning and different spellings but the same pronunciation
• كلمات لها معنى مختلف وأحرف مختلفة مع تشابه النطق
Feet /…………./ , feat /…………/
Hear/,,,,,,,,,,,,,,/ , here /……………./
• Words which have different meanings but the same pronunciation and the same spelling
• كلمات لها معنى مختلف ولكن لها نفس النطق والنفس الأحرف
Bank= the bank of river bank= organization for keeping money safely
Ear= organ of hearing ear= seed- bearing part of a cereal plant like wheat, barley etc
Words in such pairs are homophonous and also homographous.
Polysemy
Those words which have a number of cognitive meanings " denotative الكمه التي لها عدت معاني
Each of these has a primary meaning and also one or more secondary meanings,
وجميعها لديها معنى أساسي وأيضا إمعاني ثانوية
The secondary meanings of such words are metaphorical extensions of their primer meaning
والمعنى الثانوي في كل كلمه هي امتداد لمعنى مجازي
• Foot = moveable part at the end leg >>>>>>>>> primary meaning
= bottom part of a mountain a bed >>>>>>secondary meaning (meta, extern)
• Mouse: a small animal >>>>>>primary meaning
an input device of a computer >>>>>> meta
difference between polysemy and homonymy
• Polysemy : is a word having two or more related meaning كلمه لها عدت معاني
• Homonymy: those words have different and unrelated meanings but the same pronunciation and or same spelling الكلمات التى لها معنى مختلف ولكن لها نفس النطق او نفس الكتابه
• Polysemy: different but related because they have the same function or shape مختلفات ولكن لها نفس الوظيفه او الشكل
Hyponyms
If the meaning of one word includes the meaning of another word, the meaning relation between such words is known as hyponymy اذا كان المعنى لكلمه يتعلق بمعنى كلمه أخرى هذا يعني انها هناك علاقة بين الكلمات ويعتبر
• Hyponym (n) >>>>>word
• Hyponymous (adj) >>>> have the same relation
• Hyponymy : the concept – process
Hyponymy is different from the meaning relation between a whole and its parts.
Flowers (superoediante word )
(kinds) Rose lily daffodil ( hyponymy) (co-hyponyms)
Body
Lag hand face (parts)
This is not hyponyms because: hyponymy is bases on the notion of " a kind of " and not on the notion of " apart of
لان لا يركز على أجزاء ألكلمه بل على اتواعها
Animals
^
^
Sheep
^
Ram ewe lamb
The same word may be a superodinate term in relation to certain words and a hyponym in relation to another words
قد تكون ألكلمه الاساسيه جزء من كلمه أخرى
We don't use it in a live but it use in botany علم النبات Zoology علم الحيوان
Comprehensively and systematically على نحو شامل ومنهجي
كامل من البدايه الى النهايه
Some Basic Concepts In Semantics
Sentence
A sentence is an ideal string of words formed in accordance with the grammatical rules of a language (written) جمله تامة بقواعد صحيحة ( كتابه)
it's highest of grammar sentence is Written grammar meaningful stretch of language
1-sentence is higher than clause
2-clause is higher than phrase
3-phrase is higher than the word
Independent: it's complete is meaning the sentence
S+ v+ C في الجملة يجب إكمالها لتكون نحويا
e.g.: She gets up early
she always get up early
utterance
*An Utterance : is any stretch of language spoken by a person at a certain and place on a certain occasion. الكلام: هو امتداد للغه التي يتحدث بها الشخص في مكان معين و ومناسبة معينه (كلام)
( spoken A meaningless sequence of sounds like the
following cannot be considered an utterance
proposition
*A proposition: A proposition is semantic content of a simple declarative sentence, just as the sentence is essentially a grammatical concept the proposition is essentially a semantic concept . هو المحتوى الدلالي, وكما ان المعنى أساس في الجملة, يكون المعنى أساس في الخبر.
Differences between a sentence and an utterance
*An utterance; should not be full sentence and it's could be full ( fine) or (I'm fine)
utterance عندما تكون الاجابه وحده على كل الاسئله تكون قد تكون الجملة تامة وقد لا تكتمل والمهم انه تكون لها معنى واضح
*A Sentence: should be full sentence (I'm fine)يجب أن تكون الجملة تامة
*An utterance : should not be part of sentence it could be of number sentences in a sequence. Hi, How are you, are you fine قد تكون جزى من الجمل او تكون عدت جمل في نفس السياق
*An Utterance is necessarily a physical event, in utterance have a pause =silent
يجب أن تستخدم أعضاء النطق لأنها شفوية, ويوجد فيها سكوت بين الكلام
*It need not begins with capital letter and an end with punctuation mark and question
لا نحتاج لكتابه بالحروف الكبيرة او علامات الترقيم لأنها تظهر بصوت الشخص المتكلم نوع الجملة
*A sentence: generally begins with a capital letter and ends with punctuation mark
يجب أن تبدى الجملة بحرف كبير وتنتهي بعلامات الترقيم
*An utterance: when we repeat the same sentence many time like Hi….Hi…Hi we will have 3 utterance but it should be there silent between every word
utterances عند دما يتكرر نطق الجمله اكثر من مره يصبح لدينا اكثر من
Hello , Hello , Hello تعتبر ثلاث جمل وأيضا ثلاث ألفاظ
*An utterance is the spoken form of a stretch if language it can be slow or fast , faint or loud. بطيي او سريع منخفض مرتفع utterance يمكن ان يكون في
*Sentence: cannot be slow or fast, faint and loud لا يمكن ان تكون الجملة بطيئة او سريع هاو منخفض او مرتفعه ا
*Accent and voice quality can be feature of utterance only. ( utterance تغيير الصوت او لهجة من سمات
*A Sentence: we can't change the meaning by the voice لا نستطيع تغيير معنى الجمله بواسطة الصوت
*An utterance : need not be in the form of a complete sentence having a clearly it's nay well be in the form of only a word or phrase or a clause operating as a full sentence
لا تحتاج أن نكمل الجملة ويجب أن تكون واضحة ولها معنى وقد تكون كلمه او عباره او كلمات وتظهر جمله لانها لها معنى واضح
Will you be here tomorrow?
Yes
Difference between a sentence and a proposition
*when we change the order of words it will become another sentence like
عند تعيير ترتيب الجمله تصبح لدينا جمله أخرى
*A proposition: when we change the order of words it doesn't change the meaning so we have one proposition
عند تغيير ترتيب الجملة لا يصبح لدينا معنى مختلف
He gave the books away \ He gave away the books
In this example we have two sentence but we have one proposition
في هذا الامثله لدينا جملتين ولدينا معنى واحد فقط
*when we change the structure of sentence we will get another sentence
عندما نغير بنيه الجمله سوف يصبح لدينا جمله اخرى
*when we change the structure of sentence we will have the same preposition
عندما نغير بنيه الجمله لا يتغير المعنى
John envies Jim جون يحسد جيم
John is envies of Jim جون هو يغار من جيم
*A sentence is a grammatical entity تتكون الجمله من بنيه نحويه
*A proposition: is a semantic notion المعنى الدلالي
John Keats wrote this poem
This poem was written by John Keats
Have separate sentences but they are not two different proposition
لدينا بنيتين مختلفتي لذلك لدينا جملتين والمعنى واحد
&-change the voice of sentence makes another sentence
&change the voice of a simple declarative sentence does not make it another sentence
Analytic sentence
*An analytic sentence is a sentence the proposition content of which is necessarily true يجب ان تكون صادقه ولا تحتمل الكذب
Dogs are animals / 1+1=2
Synthetic Sentence
*A synthetic sentence is a sentence the propositional content of which may be either true or flues جمله تحتمل الصواب والخطى
His wife is always in a bad mood / I have a lot of money
Contradiction
*A contradiction is a sentence the propositional content of which is necessarily false جمله دائما غير صائبة المعنى في الجملة خاطئ
Cats are human beings
Entailment
*Entailment is a property of proposition. If the truth of proposition B follows necessarily from the truth of proposition
We say that proposition A entails proposition B
الاستتباع:اذا كانت الحقيقة في الجملة الثانية يستوجب اتبع الحقيقة في الجملة الأولى ونقول الجملة الأولى تستوجب الجملة الثانية
A-Mary killed Barbara
B-Barbara died
الجملة الأولى تستوجب وجود المعنى للجملة الثانية ولكن الجملة الثانية لا تستوجب وجود الجملة الأولى
Proportion A entails proposition B
• Entailment divided to two types
First one is unilateral: (الجملة الأولى تستوجب الجملة الثانية والعكس غير صحيح)
A-He is from India
B- He is from Asia
الجملة الأولى تستوجب المعنى للجملة الثانية والجملة الثانية لا تستوجب المعنى للجملة الأولى
Second: bilateral (استجاب الجمليتين لبعضهما )
A-Mona resembles Barbara
B_ Barbara resembles Mona
كل جمله تستوجب المعنى في الجملة الثانية
وفي بعض الأحيان قد تكون أعاده صياغ
This place is different from that place
That place is different from this place
Paraphrase
A sentence which expresses the same proposition as another sentence is known as the paraphrase of that sentence اعاده الصياغ
A_ John sold that car to Mary
B-Mary bought that car from John
In these sentence A is the paraphrase of B just as B is the paraphrase of A
الجملة الثانية فقط أعاده صياغة من ألجمله الأولى
Sense and reference
*Reference: used in its technical sense in semantics tells us about the relationship between languages and the outside word الكلمات التى لها معنى او جود خارج الغه
Like
Lions: refers to all those large, strong, flash-eating animals
Taj Mahan: refers to building at Agra in Indian
*Sense: relationship inside the language. Which do not refer to anything in the world
Like a person and animals (outside language ) like and , or , if ……… etc
These words have a sense but no reference
Sense relationship inside a language itself الكلمات التي ليس لها وجود او معنى خارج الغه
Like
(Morning star and evening star ) they mean the same thing (plant venous) so we say they have no difference in outside a language (semantic) but in semantic have different because we say morning Star in Morning and evening star in evening
كلماتنا لهما كيان واحد في العالم الخارجي مع اختلاف المعنى فنجم الصباح يقال عن الصباح ونجم أليل يقال في نجم أليل
Denotation Connotation
Denotation: primary meaning (the basic meaning of word المعنى الأساسي للكلمة
Denotation: of a word is the object or the objects that it refers to in the world outside language الكلمات التي لها كيان خارج ألغه
Meaning of word which refer to dictionary and does not change by time (stable , unchanged)معنى ألكلمه الذي لا يتغير
Like
Woman: (n) an adult female human
Pigeon: a large bird
*Connotation: incident meaning المعنى الذي يتغير
*Connotation of word change with the passage of time and change from one culture to another (unstable , changeable) معنى ألكلمه يتغير عبر الزمن ومن ثقافة إلى أخرى
Woman
Beauty sensitive frail crying
Pigeon
Freedom pace
All these deepens of opinion of people ( give) جميعها تعتمد على اختلافات أراء الناس
Converse terms
*Converse terms : the existence of one word in the pair inevitable implies the existence of the other وجود كلمه واحد يستوجب وجود الأخرى
Ali give Anwar a present = means
Anwar receive a present from Ali
when we add er or more in gradable words became converse terms like small smaller
Multiple Incompatibles
*Multiple Incompatibles: many words together of antonyms are taken from "system of multiple in compatibility
العديد من الكلمات المتضادة التي تأخذ من مجموعه من النظام معين
Color>>> white=\= black
We can say (the truth of one leads to the falsity of the other. But the falsity of one does not necessarily lead to the truth of the other like solid =\= liquid
Synonyms
It is important to note that no two words have exactly the same meaning. Even if two words have exactly the same referential meaning they may differ from the point of view of their emotive meaning or from the point of view of the associations they carry and the evocative effects the produce لا توجد هناك كلمات لها نفس المعنى وان وجد فلابد ان يكون باختلاف وان كان بسيط
The meaning of words these words which have (more or less ) nearly the same meaning
الكلمات التي لها نفس المعنى تقريبا
Characteristic>>>>>>>>>>> feature , quality
لا توجد كلمات لها نفس المعنى وان وجد فهناك في المعنى المعنوي
In other word denotation meaning are similar but the connotation meaning are different
قد يتشابهان في المعنى الأساسي ولكن المعنى الثانوي للكلمة لا يتشابهون فيه
We have 3 terms refer to this topic
1) synonym 3 (n)= the word
2) synonymous (adj) = having the same meaning
3) synonymy (n) = the concept
The two tests of synonymy
1) The test of substitutability = change the one word by another in the same context .
I have a big house >>>> large
I don't like such dirty jokes >>>>> filthy
*but there are words that partial synonyms
Beautiful
Woman village present dog
Handsome
Woman village present dog
If they are replace even in one context they still synonyms
2)The test of opposition = if the two words in appear have the same antonym, they are synonyms الكلمات التي لها نفس التضاد تكون لها نفس المعنى
Patterns of synonymy in English الأنماط المتشابه في ألغه الانجليزية
1) The regional varieties \ dialects
2) The origin (native- foreign )
3) The emotional \evocative meaning
4) The register
5) The triple scale of native – French – Greek - Latin
• Film (British) movie (American ) two different words have the same meaning because dialects
• Help (native ) = aid ( foreign) >>>>>>here native is informal, similar and easy but is borrowed
Strange is and formal
• But we have words that are common in
Deed (native) action (forging)
Mead (native) reword (forging)
3)We have two words different in emotional meaning for example
Liberty >>>>>>>>> negatives >>>>>liberal
Freedom >>>>>>>positive >>>>> to be free
4)Register: is a language variety used for a particular purpose or in a particular social setting for example:
Children / die (formal register) kids\ popof (informal register
Father \ Mather (adult) daddy \ mamy ( children)
Gentlemen \lady ( upper class ) chap\ woman ( common class)
So we have synonyms in two different register.
Homonyms
Those words which have different meaning and unrelated but the same pronunciation and or the same spelling.
A homonym (n) the word
A homonymous (adj) burins the same
A homonymy (n) the process \ concept
• Homographous : same spelling different pronunciation different meaning in other word homographous word which have identical meaning الكلمات التي لها نفس الأحرف مع اختلاف المعنى النطق Lead /…………./ = the name of metal , lead / ……………../ = to show the way
Row /…………../ = noisy quarrel or argument , row /…………../ to propel a boat by using oar
For more example see page 32
• Words have different meaning and different spellings but the same pronunciation
• كلمات لها معنى مختلف وأحرف مختلفة مع تشابه النطق
Feet /…………./ , feat /…………/
Hear/,,,,,,,,,,,,,,/ , here /……………./
• Words which have different meanings but the same pronunciation and the same spelling
• كلمات لها معنى مختلف ولكن لها نفس النطق والنفس الأحرف
Bank= the bank of river bank= organization for keeping money safely
Ear= organ of hearing ear= seed- bearing part of a cereal plant like wheat, barley etc
Words in such pairs are homophonous and also homographous.
Polysemy
Those words which have a number of cognitive meanings " denotative الكلمه التي لها عدت معاني
Each of these has a primary meaning and also one or more secondary meanings,
وجميعها لديها معنى أساسي وأيضا إمعاني ثانوية
The secondary meanings of such words are metaphorical extensions of their primer meaning والمعنى الثانوي في كل كلمه هي امتداد لمعنى مجازي
• Foot = moveable part at the end leg >>>>>>>>> primary meaning
= bottom part of a mountain a bed >>>>>>secondary meaning (meta, extern)
• Mouse: a small animal >>>>>>primary meaning
an input device of a computer >>>>>> meta
difference between polysemy and homonymy
• Polysemy : is a word having two or more related meaning كلمه لها عدت معاني
• Homonymy: those words have different and unrelated meanings but the same pronunciation and or same spelling الكلمات التى لها معنى مختلف ولكن لها نفس النطق او نفس الكتابه
• Polysemy: different but related because they have the same function or shape
• مختلفات ولكن لها نفس الوظيفة او الشكل
Hyponyms
If the meaning of one word includes the meaning of another word, the meaning relation between such words is known as hyponymy
اذا كان المعنى لكلمه يتعلق بمعنى كلمه أخرى هذا يعني انها هناك علاقة بين الكلمات ويعتبر
• Hyponym (n) >>>>>word
• Hyponymous (adj) >>>> have the same relation
• Hyponymy : the concept – process
Hyponymy is different from the meaning relation between a whole and its parts.
Flowers (superoediante word )
(kinds) Rose lily daffodil
( hyponymy) general name for this group الاسم العام للمجموعات الكلمات
(co-hyponyms) related between words العلاقة بين الكلمات
Body
Lag hand face (parts)
This is not hyponyms because: hyponymy is bases on the notion of " a kind of " and not on the notion of " apart of لان لا يركز على أجزاء ألكلمه بل على اتواعها
Animals
Sheep
Ram ewe lamb
The same word may be a superodinate term in relation to certain words and a hyponym in relation to another words
قد تكون ألكلمه الاساسيه جزء من كلمه أخرى
We don't use it in a live but it use in botany علم النبات Zoology علم الحيوان
Comprehensively and systematically على نحو شامل ومنهجي
The semantics of prefixes and suffixes in English
prefixes : adding in beginning of words
Suffixes: adding in ending of word
Affixation is the addition of a prefix or a suffix to a word for the purpose (function) of
1) making another words (laugh يضحك – laugher ضاحك,, scholar عالم- scholarshipثقافة ) لصنع كلمات جديدة
2) Or another form of the same word (nice- nicer, boy, boys) او لشكل اخر كجمع
The change usually takes place at three levels simultaneously.
1) Level of morphology
2) Level of syntax يناء الكلمة
3) Level of semantics
"polysemic" Prefixes and suffix
Prefix \ suffix Meaning Examples
Bi- (- means its prefix) (a) twice in one period bi- annual = twice in a year
bi-monthly = twice in a month
(d) once in a period of two biennial = once in two years
Bicentennial = once in two hundred
(c) having two bilingual = having two languages
Bilateral= having two sides
كلمات لها معنى متقارب او عمل متشابه (bi)
"Homonymous" prefixes and suffixes
Prefix \ suffix Meaning Examples
-er (-… suffix) (a) not, without amoral= not concerned with morals
(b) in the state of asleep= in the state of sleep
كلمات مختلفة في المعنى والعمل (-er)
الفرق بين (polysemy and homonymy ) ان (polysemy) نفس الكلمه مع تقارب بالمعنى او العمل
(homonymy)نفس ألكلمه مع اختلف بالعمل والمعنى
(ملاحظه يجب حفظ الكلمات التي في أمثله الكتاب وتمارينه)
هذا علمي وما جاكم شر